A joint team of researchers from Israel and the United States say they have uncovered evidence of ancient social beer consumption after examining cereal grains at a 7,000-year-old archeological site.

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The study, led by Professor Danny Rosenberg from the University of Haifa and Professor Li Liu of Stanford University analyzed grain remnants from pottery strainers and concluded the clay tools were used in the production of beer.

Researchers looked into the strainers at two Copper Age sites – 7,000-year-old Tel Tsaf, an ancient settlement in the Jordan Valley that was home to several hundred people in the Chalcolithic Age, and Peki'in Cave, a burial site located in the Upper Galilee which dates back to 4,500 –3,900 BCE.

Tel Tsaf is one of the only sites in Israel that dates back to this period of history, when humans began to transition from small agricultural societies to communities that bore traces of early urbanization.

"The microfossils (phytoliths, starch granules, yeast cells, and fibers) indicate that both strainers once contained fermented beverages made from Triticeae (wheat/barley), Panicoideae, and Cyperus tubers," the scientists explain in an article in the Journal of Anthropological Archaeology.

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They said that "these results suggest that beer production and consumption using strainers may have been regularly practiced" during this period of time.

"You can imagine how the nascent society at Tel Tsaf held large events at which they would consume large amounts of food and beer in a social context, and not only for ritual rites," Rosenberg said.

The finding marks the earliest instance of evidence on the social consumption of beer in the Levant before the Bronze Age, according to The Times of Israel.

Additionally, the researchers reported that the alcoholic beverage was significant to gatherings in ancient Israel, and indicated a higher level of social complexity.

"Beer appears to have played an important role in various social settings for communication among social groups as well as between the living and the deceased," the experts concluded.

i24NEWS contributed to this report

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American and Egyptian archaeologists have unearthed what could be the oldest known beer factory at one of the most prominent archaeological sites of ancient Egypt, a top antiquities official said Saturday.

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Mostafa Waziri, secretary general of the Supreme Council of Antiquities, said the factory was found in Abydos, an ancient burial ground located in the desert west of the Nile River, over 450 kilometers (280 miles) south of Cairo.

He said the factory apparently dates back to the reign of King Narmer, who is widely known for his unification of ancient Egypt at the beginning of the First Dynastic Period (3150 BCE-2613 BCE).

Archaeologists found eight huge units – each is 20 meters (about 65 feet) long and 2.5 meters (about 8 feet) wide. Each unit includes some 40 pottery basins in two rows, which had been used to heat up a mixture of grains and water to produce beer, Waziri said.

The joint mission is co-chaired by Dr. Matthew Adams of the Institute of Fine Arts, New York University, and Deborah Vischak, assistant professor of ancient Egyptian art history and archaeology at Princeton University.

Adams said the factory was apparently built in this area to provide royal rituals with beer, given that archaeologists found evidences showing the use of beer in sacrificial rites of ancient Egyptians.

British archaeologists were the first to mention the existence of that factory early 1900s, but they couldn't determine its location, the antiquities ministry said.

With its vast cemeteries and temples from the earliest times of ancient Egypt, Abydos was known for monuments honoring Osiris, ancient Egypt's god of underworld and the deity responsible for judging souls in the afterlife.

The necropolis had been used in every period of early Egyptian history, from the prehistoric age to Roman times.

Egypt has announced dozens of ancient discoveries in the past couple of years, in the hope of attracting more tourists.

The tourism industry has been reeling from the political turmoil following the 2011 popular uprising that toppled longtime autocrat Hosni Mubarak. The sector was also dealt a further blow last year by the coronavirus pandemic.

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"The things having to do with people's daily lives in ancient times and the really interesting questions – what they ate, what they drank, what the flavors were, what activities took place in the buildings that were discovered – were overshadowed," Ben-Gedalya notes.

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But in science, like in life itself, shadows are temporary. Bioarchaeology, a multi-disciplinary field that has flourished in the past few years and which Ben-Gedalya found a natural fit, has been shining a spotlight on questions that always interested her but were never answered.

This new area of research uses innovative technology developed for work in biology, chemistry, and medical science to answer questions about the history of humanity. Questions that Ben-Gedalya and her colleagues are slowing finding answers to.

Ben-Gedalya, 44, works as a research fellow at Ariel University and a researcher for the Regional Research and Development Center of Eastern Judea and Samaria and the Jordan Valley, one of several such centers established in the 1990s for two purposes: to help bring scientists from the former Soviet Union into Israeli research, and to foster scientific research and education in the periphery. Over the years, each center developed its own areas of expertise, tailored the areas in which they are located. Judea and Samaria, with their rich history, had every reason to reflect the past in research that looks to the future.

"I always enjoyed hiking and nature, and at university I chose a double major – Land of Israel studies and archaeology, along with biology and life sciences," Ben-Gedalya says.

"As a student, I worked in Professor Mordechai Kislev's lab. He was an expert in botanic findings from archaeological excavations. How symbolic – I sat there with a microscope, and above me were crates of Yigal Yadin's discoveries from Massada."

Although Ben-Gedalya's studies focused more on the study of the brain and the biochemistry of diseases such as Alzheimer's and Parkinson's, fate repeatedly brought her back to findings from the distant past. Her biology lab is examining the possibility of using medicinal plants from ancient times known to facilitate memory and delay aging as a treatment for Alzheimer's.

"I realized that the R&D center had the ability to help archaeological research, as well. When they want to understand what ancient vessels found in archaeological dig held, the methods of biochemistry and biology are similar, or can be adapted: the use of microscopes, chemical analysis, identification of the components and identification of plants or other natural matter that came into contact with the vessel," she explains.

Wine went in, secrets came out

In 2017, the archaeologist Roee Porat, who led the delegation to study the Herodian, told Ben-Gedalya about the unique vessels uncovered at the Herodian site – dozens of hand-made storage containers known as dolia that measured about a meter [three feet] tall by a meter wide, capable of holding some 400 liters (105.6 gallons). The temptation to probe the purpose of the huge containers was immense.

"I soon joined the excavation team from the Hebrew University researching Herodian. To a large extent, it really was a mission that like a detective trying to recreate events based on what is found at a scene. At Herodian, I looked more like something we now identify with COVID: I came to the excavation wearing laboratory gear – a lab coat and gloves. When you want to take a 2,000-year-old sample, you can't contaminate it with anything modern that has a dominant presence, so the process of taking samples of ancient material looks pretty dramatic."

Thanks to the careful attention to details, study of the dolia revealed each one to be a perfectly preserved time capsule, containing evidence of far-off times. The samples were examined and prepare for various tests to be carrying out with funding from the Science and Technology Ministry. Some of the samples were brought to the Ariel University Wine Research Center, which is run by Dr. Eliyashiv Drori. Drori's search for ancient grape varietals used to make wine in the ancient Land of Israel and his attempts to recreate ancient wines in the university's research vineyard have made him into an international authority on the subject.

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The contents of the dolia are also being examined in Professor Ehud Weiss' archaeological botany laboratory at Bar-Ilan University, and revealing more plants that were intentionally or incidentally added to the wine-making process. These findings indicate that plants were added to wine for their properties of taste, health, or aroma, and teach us about the climate and the environment of those times – both the wild and cultivated areas where the wine was produced.

Cutting-edge biology and biochemistry methods might have been used to identify the contents of the dolia, but the historical context was not neglected. The fact that the giant containers were arranged in an enclosed space in Herod's palace, lined up closely and orderly on the ground floor, gave the archaeologists a hint that the production process was well-organized. Findings indicate that what has been excavated at Herodian are the remains of Herod's royal vineyard and wine storage facility. The huge jars were apparently used for fermentation, aging, and storage of locally-produced wine. The wine was decanted from the dolia into amphorae, which might have been stored for use in nearby rooms.

"The large quantity of grape seeds discovered at the bottoms of the dolia, and the organic sediment found with them, appear to be showing us that the dolia contained wine at various stages of production since seeds and sediment are removed from the wine at later stages," Ben-Gedalya explained.

Drori, who produces his own wine, adds, "At this stage, there are two possibilities, based on the type of wines. With red wine, it is customary to ferment the grape juice while the peels and seeds are still inside, to get the maximum color and flavor contained in the peels. In that case, it is unlikely that the initial fermentation was done in the dolia we found, since relatively little organic sediment was found there compared to what we would have expected for fermentation that contained the peels.

"Because thus far no wine vats from the time of Herod have been found near Herodian, we can assume that in this case, the first pressing and fermentation were carried out in vats near the vineyards in Judea, and at the end of the fermentation process, after the peels were squeezed out, the liquid – including a bit of seeds and husk were brought to the dolia in Herodian, where they were fermented a second time and the wine was produced and aged.

"However, in dolia in which white wine was produced, it's possible that they were used even for the initial fermentation, since in producing white wine it is customary to stamp the grapes and press the juice out, separate the waste, and only then ferment. In the white grape juice fermented in containers you will find traces of husk and seeds, and they will be sifted out only at later stages," Drori observes.

Go out and drink beer

There is no doubt that the king was served the best wine that could be found, produced, or imported from overseas. Herod did not hesitate to import, and had close ties with the Roman Empire. Excavations at Herodian and his other palaces have unearthed amphorae incised with delivery addresses and seals, which taught researches about large shipments of wine from Italy to Herod's court. Herod expected that the local wines be just as good. What's more, it's possible that the wines in the dolia found at Herodian were exported as part of the global wine trade.

The biological and biochemical findings in the dolia raise other questions. Research is currently focused on identifying the type of grapes used to make wine at Herodian, and Ben-Gedalya's lab is working on characterizing the bio-archaeological aspects of it. The microorganisms used in the fermentation process are also being studied.

As part of a research center that specializes in the medicinal properties of plants, especially ones unique to the Land of Israel, researchers are especially fascinated by the aromas and health benefits. In ancient times, various plant components, such as honey, herbs, or aromatic oils, were added to wine to help preserve and protect it against microbial activity. The herbs and medicinal plants added to the wine used the alcohol to produce added flavor, aroma, and health benefits. Anyone who wants to reproduce Herodian wine must understand all the ingredients that went into it.

Ben-Gedalya points to the successful recreation of another ancient beverage. Before taking part in the Herodian excavation, she was part of a study led by microbiologists Dr. Michael Klutstein and Dr. Ronen Hazan of the Hebrew University of Jerusalem, who were attempting to find traces of yeast in vessels they believed once held beer. These clay jars were found in various places throughout the country and dated from different eras, starting from the Canaanite.

"I suggested they take the shards to an electron microscope to photograph and identify the sample of the different yeasts that remained. To make sure it wasn't a pipe dream, on my summer break I went to the Kidma vintners, who are the only ones in Israel who produce wine in pottery jars, using the method employed long ago in Georgia. For the sake of the research, they allowed us to cut off a piece of an old pottery vessel. When I examined it under an electron microscope, I was able to spot microorganisms that were multiplying."

After that experiment, it still had to be proven that what worked for used pottery from a modern-day vintner would work for much older pottery. And it did, Ben-Gedalya confirms.

"Ancient jugs characterized by a kind of filter that trapped elements that made up the beverage were identified through typology by archaeologists as jugs used for beer. Small shards of these jugs were scanned with an electron microscope. Then the researchers placed them in liquid in which yeast is grown. The liquid was then put into petri dish. All of a sudden, microorganisms that had been hidden inside the pottery started to appear.

"In the next stage, through a process of selection and antibiotics, only the yeast was left. They were taken for DNA sequencing and mapping. Then we found that one of the ancient yeasts was very similar to the yeast used today in Zimbabwe to brew beer at home. The researchers, together with brewers, recreated the various beers. The recipe was identical, but the taste and smell changed because the yeast was from different places and sources. Thanks to that recreation, we could taste Egyptian beer, Philistine beer, and Persian beer."

From past to present

But the findings aren't limited to beer and wine. Another vessel, found in an excavation at Kibbutz Ramat Rachel, that was used in the beer research also contained remnants of honey. Researchers think that it contained mead. If this research continues, Ben-Gedalya's dream of finding out everything that the ancient residents of this land ate and drank could come true.

Q: One day, will we be able to make King Herod's wine or recreate beverages from the Roman-era Land of Israel?

"On the whole, it's possible. I'm not sure we'll enjoy the flavors, even ones that were considered fine in their time. Tastes for wine or beer are acquired, and our palate has gotten used to very different flavors. It's no coincidence that they tended to add plants to their drinks, like mint, and it's likely that the additions improved the flavor. In general, the job of recreation brings us plenty of surprises. I remember that at the wine festival put on by Ariel University, they decided to reassemble one of the dolia.

"The experienced restorer Leah Tramer worked hard and put together the shards, like a big puzzle, and in the end, we were amazed to find out that the jar was so huge that we couldn't get it out of the room. In the end, the university people had to open up a double door in one wall to get the restored dolia out.

"Even though problems like this are inevitable every time we try to recreate the past, the attempts are fascinating. Personally, I'm enchanted by the idea that we will be able to recreate elements of the Roman feast, which among other things are seen in the Passover seder. It is a feast that combines food, drink, and conversation, and Herod's hall at Herodian certainly hosted many such feasts. In our time, the idea of locally-produced food, as the antithesis to standardized globalization, speaks to people more and more, many people wonder what people here ate and drank thousands of years ago.

"In my opinion, King Herod's palace is the epitome of local-ness. I live near Herodian, and this impressive hill, this enormous man-made fortress, is present not only in the history of the land but also in the present. We are still finding out the secrets of Herodian, and we have lots more work to do," Ben-Gedalya says. 

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Israel is a leader in cybersecurity, and many of the world's largest companies have opened centers there or acquired Israeli tech firms to defend themselves against hackers as the reliance on digital networks and cloud storage becomes more prevalent.

Anheuser-Busch's Tel Aviv hub will focus on analyzing threats and potential attacks, said Luis Veronesi, vice president of global security and compliance. The company did not disclose financial details of the move.

Veronesi said the entire industry has been facing increased cyberattacks, ranging from "financially motivated" hacks to attempts at disrupting operations.

"With increasing digitalization, we have to be prepared to defend against anything coming," he said.

The maker of about 500 brands, including Budweiser, Corona and Stella Artois, began operating in Israel a year ago when it acquired startup Weissbeerger, which developed a platform to analyze beverage consumption at point of sale by connecting beer taps to the internet and collecting data from the register.

Weissbeerger became the company's local research and development center and it plans to expand its workforce, Anheuser-Busch said.

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Archaeologists and microbiologists from the Israel Antiquities Authority and four Israeli universities teamed up to study yeast colonies found in microscopic pores in pottery fragments. The shards were found at Egyptian, Philistine and Judean archaeological sites in Israel spanning from 3,000 BCE to the fourth century BCE.

Scientists are touting the brews made from "resurrected" yeasts as an important step in experimental archaeology, a field that seeks to reconstruct the past in order to better understand the flavor of the ancient world.

"What we discovered was that yeast can actually survive for a very, very long time without food," said Hebrew University microbiologist Michael Klutstein. "Today we are able to salvage all these living organisms that live inside the nanopores and to revive them and study their properties."

Beer was a staple of the daily diet for the people of ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia. Early Egyptian texts refer to a variety of different brews, including "iron beer," ''friend's beer" and "beer of the protector."

The yeast samples came from nearly two dozen ceramic vessels found in excavations around the country, including a salvage dig in central Tel Aviv, a Persian-era palace in southern Jerusalem and En Besor, a 5,000-year-old Egyptian brewery in Israel's south. The project was spearheaded by Hebrew University microbiologist Ronen Hazan and antiquities authority archaeologist Yitzhak Paz.

Other researchers of ancient beers, such as University of Pennsylvania archaeologist Patrick McGovern, have concocted drinks based on ancient recipes and residue analysis of ceramics. But the Israeli scientists say this is the first time fermented drinks have been made from revived ancient yeasts.

Aren Maeir, a Bar-Ilan University archaeologist, excavates at Tel es-Safi, the biblical city of Gath, where ancient Philistine beer pots yielded yeasts used to brew a beer offered to journalists. He likened the revival of long-dormant yeast to the resurrection of ancient beasts fictionalized in "Jurassic Park," but only to a point.

"In Jurassic Park, the dinosaurs eat the scientists," he said. "Here, the scientists drink the dinosaurs."

"It opens up a whole new field of the possibility that perhaps other microorganisms survived as well, and you can identify foods such as cheese, wine, pickles," opening a portal into tasting cultures of the past, he said.

For this initial experiment, the team paired up with a Jerusalem craft brewer to make a basic modern-style ale using yeast extracted from the pots. The ale had a thick white head, with a caramel color and a distinctly funky nose. The mead, made using yeast extracted from a vessel found in the ruins of a palace near Jerusalem that contained honey wine roughly 2,400 years ago, was champagne bubbly and dry, with a hint of green apple.

The beer incorporates modern ingredients, like hops, that were not available in the ancient Middle East – but it's the revived yeast that provides much of the flavor.

"We tried to recreate some of the old flavors that people in this area were consuming hundreds and thousands of years ago," said Shmuel Naky, a craft brewer from the Jerusalem Beer Center, who helped produce the beer and mead. Yeasts, he said, "have a very crucial impact on flavor."

Naky described the beer as "spicy, and somewhat fruity, and it's very complex in flavor," all attributes produced by the ancient yeast.

Genome sequencing of the yeast colonies extracted from the pots showed that the ancient strain of yeast was different from the yeast used in beer-making today, but similar to those still used to make traditional Zimbabwean beer and Ethiopian tej, a type of honey wine.

The researchers said their next aim is to pair the resurrected yeasts with ancient beer recipes to better reproduce drinks from antiquity.

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